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Motivation and emotion are two of the most important and complex psychological processes that occur in living beings, especially humans. This unit on motivation and emotion will help you understand the concepts of motivation and emotion, along with developments in these psychological domains, their biological underpinnings, overt expressions, cultural determinants, and the interrelationship between emotion and motivation.
Contents
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Nature of Motivation
- 3 Types of Motives
- 4 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- 5 Nature of Emotions
- 6 Expression of Emotions
- 7 Managing Negative Emotions
- 8 Managing Your Anger
- 9 Enhancing Positive Emotions
- 10 Important Definition in NCERT Notes Class 11 Psychology Chapter 8: Motivation and Emotion
- 11 FAQs
- 12
Explore Notes of Class 11 Psychology
Introduction
Motivation is the internal process that initiates, directs, and sustains goal-oriented behaviour. All behaviour illustrated is driven by underlying motives. Human actions are inherently goal-directed, and such behaviour typically continues until the intended goal is achieved. Individuals engage in systematic planning and execute various actions to fulfil their personal goals. Emotional responses are closely tied to the outcome of motivated behaviour.
Nature of Motivation
Motivation is centrally concerned with explaining what activates or “moves” behaviour. The word motivation originates from the Latin term movere, which means “to move.” Motivation is responsible for initiating, directing, and sustaining behaviour across various contexts. For example, when one considers the reason for attending school or college, it is evident that multiple motives may underlie this behaviour. These may include the desire to
- Acquire knowledge
- Form friendships
- Attain a diploma or degree to secure a good job
- Fulfil familial expectations, such as making one’s parents proud.
The Motivational Cycle
Motivation often centres around the concept of the need to explain its behavioural dynamics. A need is characterised as a state of deficiency or lack of some essential requirement. This state of need initiates a drive, which is a condition of internal tension or arousal generated by the unmet need.
This drive energises the organism, often resulting in random activity. Among these random behaviours, when one proves effective in fulfilling the need, the goal is achieved, the drive is reduced, and the organism ceases to remain active in that context. Consequently, the organism returns to a state of balance or equilibrium.
Also Read: Theories of Learning in Psychology: Definition, Types, and Concepts Involved
Types of Motives
Motives are broadly divided into two categories: biological motives and psychosocial motives.
Biological Motives
Biological motives, also called physiological motives, are based largely on internal bodily processes and are regulated by physiological mechanisms. These are considered primary or basic because they are essential for survival and are present in all individuals by birth.
Some of the biological motives are as follows:
- Hunger
Hunger is a strong biological need. When a person is hungry, this need dominates all other concerns and motivates behaviour focused on finding and consuming food.
- Internal stimuli include:
- Stomach contractions indicating emptiness
- Low glucose levels in the blood
- Low protein and fat levels
- The liver detects a lack of fuel and sends signals to the brain
- External stimuli include:
- Smell, appearance, and taste of food
- Observing others eat
These cues work together to produce the sensation of hunger. The regulation of food intake is managed by a complex feeding-satiety system located in the hypothalamus, liver, and other parts of the body, and is influenced by external factors in the environment.
- Thirst
If an individual is deprived of water for several hours, the mouth and throat become dry, leading to the dehydration of body tissues. The motivation to drink water is regulated by processes inside the body.
- Thirst is triggered when:
- Water is lost from bodily fluids and cells
- Blood volume decreases
- Cells become dehydrated
- The anterior hypothalamus contains nerve cells known as osmoreceptors that generate nerve impulses when they detect dehydration, thereby motivating the individual to drink water.
- Sex
Sex is a powerful biological drive in both humans and animals. Unlike hunger and thirst, sexual activity is not required for the survival of the individual but is necessary for the survival of the species. Sex as a motive differs from other biological needs in many ways.
- Sexual activity is not essential for individual survival.
- It does not aim to maintain internal balance or homeostasis.
- It develops with age and is influenced by physiological maturity.
In lower animals, the sex drive is mostly determined by biological conditions. In humans, however, it is influenced by a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors.
Psychological Motives
Psychosocial motives are acquired or learned through interaction with the social and environmental context. These motives develop over time through socialisation, cultural exposure, and individual experiences.
- Need for Affiliation
The need for affiliation refers to the motivation to form relationships, friendships, or associations with others. Human beings are inherently social, and most people prefer to be in the company of others rather than being alone. This motive becomes especially strong when individuals feel happy, threatened, or emotionally vulnerable.
- Affiliation involves:
- Desire for companionship
- Seeking social contact
- Forming and maintaining friendly relationships
- Being part of a group or collective
Individuals with a high need for affiliation are motivated to stay connected with others physically and emotionally.
- Need for Power
The need for power is defined as the capacity of an individual to influence, control, or affect the behaviour and emotions of others. It is driven by the desire to gain dominance, leadership, and recognition in social contexts. The goal of this motive is often to enhance one’s status and reputation in the eyes of others.
- Need for Achievement
The need for achievement, also called n-Ach, is the motivation to meet standards of excellence and succeed in challenging tasks. This motive energises goal-oriented behaviour and influences how individuals perceive and evaluate situations.
- Common in individuals who:
- Set high personal goals
- Compete for better results
- Work hard for recognition and success
Achievement motivation develops in childhood and is shaped by parents, teachers, cultural values, and role models.
- Curiosity and Exploration
Sometimes individuals engage in behaviours without any specific external goal but are driven by a desire for new experiences. This is known as curiosity or exploratory behaviour.
- Curiosity is characterised by:
- Seeking novelty and new information
- Pleasure in discovering or learning something unknown
- Engaging in tasks for the inherent satisfaction of exploration
Animals also exhibit curiosity and exploration. In human beings, especially children, curiosity is a dominant force. It motivates them to explore their surroundings, touch new objects, and ask questions.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s theory of motivation was proposed by Abraham H. Maslow (1968; 1970). According to Maslow, human behaviour is driven by a progression of needs, starting from the most basic physiological needs to the highest need of self-actualisation. His theory is popularly known as the Theory of Self-Actualisation due to its emphasis on the full development of one’s potential.
Key Points of Maslow’s Hierarchy
Some of the key points of Maslow’s Hierarchy are as follows:
- Human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, from basic to advanced.
- Needs must be satisfied in sequence, i.e., higher needs emerge only after lower needs are adequately fulfilled.
- The five levels of the hierarchy (from bottom to top) are:
- Physiological Needs: Basic survival needs like hunger, thirst, and rest.
- Safety Needs: Need for physical and psychological security, freedom from danger.
- Love and Belongingness Needs: Desire to form social bonds, to love and be loved.
- Esteem Needs: Need for self-respect, achievement, and recognition from others.
- Self-Actualisation: Need to realise one’s fullest potential; becoming what one is capable of becoming.
- Self-actualised individuals are described as:
- Self-aware
- Creative and spontaneous
- Open to novelty and challenges
- Capable of forming deep interpersonal relationships
- Having a sense of humour and social responsiveness
- Lower-level needs dominate behaviour until they are fulfilled. Only then do higher-level needs become the focus.
- Few people reach the self-actualisation stage, as most remain preoccupied with satisfying lower-level needs.
Nature of Emotions
Emotions are a regular and important part of daily human experience. Throughout the day, individuals experience a wide range of emotional states such as joy, sorrow, anger, hope, excitement, and love. Although often used interchangeably, the terms emotion, feeling, and mood have different meanings in psychology.
- Feeling refers to the pleasure or pain aspect of emotion and is closely linked with bodily sensations.
- Mood is a long-lasting affective state, generally less intense than emotion.
- Emotions involve a pattern of arousal, a subjective experience, and cognitive interpretation.
- They are both physiological and psychological in nature.
- Each individual experiences emotions differently due to their subjectivity.
- Emotion is a complex experience involving:
- Physiological arousal
- Subjective feeling
- Cognitive evaluation
- Basic emotions are identified across all cultures. Six universally experienced emotions:
- Anger
- Disgust
- Fear
- Happiness
- Sadness
- Surprise
- Izard’s theory includes ten basic emotions:
- Joy, Surprise, Anger, Disgust, Contempt, Fear, Shame, Guilt, Interest, Excitement
- Other emotions arise as combinations of these basic ones
- Plutchik’s theory identifies eight basic emotions arranged in four pairs of opposites:
- Joy – Sadness
- Acceptance – Disgust
- Fear – Anger
- Surprise – Anticipation
- Emotions differ in:
- Intensity (high or low)
- Quality (type of emotion, e.g. happiness or fear)
- Subjective and situational factors influence emotional experience:
- Gender
- Personality
- Certain psychological disorders
- Gender differences in emotion:
- Women tend to experience all emotions (except anger) more intensely.
- Men experience higher intensity and frequency of anger.
Expression of Emotions
The emotional expressions serve as important channels through which individuals express their own emotions and understand those of others.
Understanding Emotion through Communication
Although we cannot observe emotions directly, people can infer emotional states through spoken words, voice tone, facial expression, gestures, posture, and physical proximity.
Verbal and Non-Verbal Channels
The verbal and non-verbal channels are:
- Verbal channel:
- Includes spoken words
- Also includes paralanguage (pitch, loudness, tempo, pauses, tone)
- Non-verbal channel:
- Facial expressions – Most common and expressive medium of emotional communication
- Kinesics – Gestures, posture, and body movement
- Proxemics – Physical distance maintained during interaction
Facial Expressions and Emotions
Facial expressions convey both the intensity and the pleasantness/unpleasantness of emotions. They are easily accessible since the face is always visible to others.
Role of Body Movements
Body movements help in understanding different emotional states. For example, movement patterns differ when one is angry versus shy.
- Performing arts like theatre and dance demonstrate how emotions can be communicated through bodily expressions.
- Indian classical dances (e.g., Bharatanatyam, Odissi, Kathak):
- Use specific eye, hand, and leg movements
- Follow the strict grammar of movement for expressing joy, sorrow, love, anger, etc.
Cultural Influence on Emotional Expression
Culture influences the expression, perception, and labelling of emotions. Gaze behaviour varies.
- Latin Americans & Southern Europeans: direct gaze to the eyes
- Asians (Indians, Pakistanis): prefer peripheral gaze (look away)
Cultural Differences in Emotional Labelling
Different cultures use different labels and levels of elaboration for the same emotion:
- The Tahitian language has 46 terms for “anger”
- North Americans gave 40 labels for facial anger, 81 for contempt
- The Japanese used 10 for happiness, 8 for anger, and 6 for disgust
- Ancient Chinese cited 7 emotions: joy, anger, sadness, fear, love, dislike, liking
- Ancient Indian texts mentioned 8: love, mirth, energy, wonder, anger, grief, disgust, fear
- Western psychology:
- Commonly accepted basic emotions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust
- Emotions like surprise, contempt, shame, and guilt are not universally accepted as basic
Managing Negative Emotions
Emotions are integral to daily life. They shape our experiences, influence our behaviour, and are essential to our relationships. It is impossible to imagine life without emotions.
Tips for Managing Negative Emotions
Tips for managing negative emotions are pointed out below.
- Enhance Self-Awareness: Being aware of your emotions helps you understand what you feel and why. Self-awareness is the first step in emotional regulation.
- Appraise the Situation Objectively: Emotions are preceded by how we interpret events. If an event is viewed as disturbing, it may trigger stress and anxiety. If not, you remain calm. This shows that you have the ability to choose your emotional response.
- Do Some Self-Monitoring: Evaluate your emotional and physical state from time to time. Review past successes and positive experiences. This builds confidence and increases emotional well-being.
- Engage in Self-Modelling: Be your own role model. Recall your best performances and use them as motivation to achieve more in the future.
- Perceptual Reorganisation and Cognitive Restructuring: Change how you look at negative events. Restructure your thoughts to replace pessimistic ideas with more positive, reassuring ones.
- Be Creative: Pursue a hobby or interest that engages your mind and provides amusement. Creative activities act as emotional outlets.
- Develop and Nurture Good Relationships: Spend time with cheerful, positive friends. Good company influences your mood and helps you feel happy overall.
- Have Empathy: Understand the feelings of others. Empathy improves the quality of your relationships and allows mutual emotional support.
- Participate in Community Service: Helping others can also help you. Acts of service, like assisting a child with special needs, give you insight into your own challenges and promote emotional growth.
Managing Your Anger
Anger is a strong negative emotion. Anger usually arises from frustrated desires or motives. However, it is not automatic or caused solely by external situations. Anger is the result of our own thinking, and therefore, it can be controlled and managed.
- Recognise the Power of Your Thoughts: Your thinking plays a central role in generating anger.
- Realise You Alone Can Control It: No one else controls your anger — you do.
- Avoid Harmful Self-Talk: Do not dwell on negative thoughts or exaggerate the situation in your mind.
- Do Not Assign Ulterior Motives to Others: Avoid assuming that others act out of bad intentions.
- Resist Irrational Beliefs: Do not hold unrealistic expectations or beliefs about how people or situations should be.
- Express Anger Constructively: Choose appropriate ways to express your feelings without hurting others.
- Control the Degree and Duration of Anger: Moderate how intensely and for how long you stay angry.
- Look Inward, Not Outward: Focus on your internal responses rather than blaming external sources.
- Give Yourself Time: Changing your emotional habits takes patience and consistent effort.
Enhancing Positive Emotions
Positive emotions like hope, joy, optimism, contentment, and gratitude act as energy boosters and contribute significantly to emotional wellness and are equally important for our long-term mental health, social adjustment, and psychological growth. They broaden our range of thoughts and actions, improve problem-solving abilities, and foster personal growth and resilience.
Ways to Enhance Positive Emotions
Some of the ways to enhance positive emotions are discussed below,
- Possessing Positive Personality Traits: Traits such as optimism, hopefulness, happiness, and a healthy self-regard help build positive emotional experiences.
- Finding Meaning in Adversity: Individuals who can see positive meaning even in difficult circumstances tend to sustain emotional strength and resilience.
- Building Supportive Relationships: Maintaining high-quality relationships and a strong social support network contributes to emotional satisfaction and positivity.
- Engagement and Mastery in Work: Being deeply involved in work and experiencing a sense of accomplishment helps in generating feelings of joy and purpose.
- Faith and Spiritual Belief: Having a belief system or faith that provides purpose, support, and hope fosters long-term emotional strength.
- Positive Interpretation of Daily Events: Interpreting routine life events in a positive light, rather than focusing on their negative aspects, promotes emotional balance.
Important Definition in NCERT Notes Class 11 Psychology Chapter 8: Motivation and Emotion
In this section, you will find the important definitions covered in this chapter.
- Motivation: Motivation is the process that initiates, directs, and sustains goal-directed behaviour, driven by internal needs, drives, goals, or incentives.
- Motives: Motives are the general internal states that help in explaining and predicting behaviour across different situations.
- Need: A need is defined as a lack or deficit of some essential requirement which gives rise to a drive, motivating goal-directed behaviour.
- Biological Needs (Hunger, Thirst, Sex): These are physiological needs essential for individual survival, such as hunger, thirst, and sex, regulated by internal bodily mechanisms like the hypothalamus.
- Psychosocial Motives: These are learned motives, such as achievement, affiliation, and power, acquired through interaction with one’s social environment.
- Power Motive: The power motive refers to the individual’s need to influence, control, or impact the emotions and actions of others, often for status or recognition.
- Esteem Needs: Esteem needs involve the desire to feel valued, respected, and recognised by others, forming the second-highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy.
- Self-Actualisation: This refers to the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy, where an individual seeks to realise their fullest potential and creativity.
- Basic Emotions: Basic emotions such as joy, anger, fear, sadness, disgust, and surprise are universally experienced and are considered to be inborn and recognisable across cultures.
- Examination Anxiety: Examination anxiety is a stress response to test situations that, if too intense, can hinder performance despite moderate anxiety being helpful for motivation.
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FAQs
Answer: Biological motives are innate and governed by physiological mechanisms like hunger, thirst, and sex, while psychosocial motives such as achievement, affiliation, and power are learned through social and environmental interactions.
Answer: Negative emotions can be managed by enhancing self-awareness, objective appraisal of situations, self-monitoring, engaging in creative hobbies, nurturing supportive relationships, and restructuring negative thoughts. Anger management includes controlling self-talk, avoiding irrational beliefs, and expressing anger constructively.
Answer: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs arranges human needs in a pyramid structure starting from physiological needs to safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and finally self-actualisation. It explains that lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs can guide behaviour.
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