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Memory can be defined as retaining and recalling information and knowledge over time. It is one of the most fascinating skills that living beings are born with. It functions to preserve our sense of who we are, maintains our interpersonal relationships, and helps us in solving problems and making decisions. This unit will help you understand the nature and function of memory, its types, the nature and cause of forgetting, and strategies for improving memory.
Contents
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Nature of Memory
- 3 Information Processing Approach: The Stage Model
- 4 Memory System: Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memories
- 5 Levels of Processing
- 6 Types of Long-Term Memory
- 7 Nature and Cause of Forgetting
- 8 Enhancing Memory
- 9 Important Definition in NCERT Notes Class 11 Psychology Chapter 6: Memory
- 10 FAQs
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Introduction
Memory is a key human faculty that plays an important role in daily life. We often experience memory failures, such as forgetting familiar names or blanking out before exams. On the other hand, memory can also surprise us by recalling something learned long ago, like childhood poems. Psychologists have studied memory to understand how information is encoded, retained, forgotten, and enhanced. The first systematic research on memory was conducted by Hermann Ebbinghaus in 1885, who experimented on himself and found that forgetting happens rapidly after learning but slows down over time.
Nature of Memory
The nature of memory is discussed below as brief pointers.
- Memory is the ability to retain and recall information over time, depending on the type of cognitive task.
- It can be short-term (e.g., remembering a phone number briefly) or long-term (e.g., remembering mathematical operations from school).
- Memory is a process that involves three interrelated stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
- Encoding:
- First stage of memory.
- Information is recorded and registered to make it usable by the memory system.
- External stimuli generate neural impulses, which are processed in the brain.
- Meaning is derived and represented for further use.
- Storage:
- The second stage of memory.
- Refers to retaining encoded information over time for later use.
- Retrieval:
- Third stage of memory.
- Involves recovering stored information to bring it to awareness.
- It helps perform cognitive tasks like problem-solving and decision-making.
Memory failure can occur at any of the three stages, due to poor encoding, weak storage, or difficulty in retrieval.
Information Processing Approach: The Stage Model
Initially, memory was believed to be merely a storage system, a vast warehouse of all the information acquired through learning and experience. It was assumed that whatever we learned was kept intact and could be retrieved when needed. However, with the development of computers, this perspective shifted significantly. Memory began to be viewed not just as a passive container but as an active information-processing system, similar in function to a computer.
Like a computer, the human memory system is capable of:
- Registering information
- Storing it temporarily or permanently
- Manipulating stored data depending on the nature of the task
- Producing an output based on the processed information
This analogy between human memory and computer systems led to the development of the Stage Model of Memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968, which views memory as a structured system where information is processed in multiple stages.
Memory System: Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memories
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), memory consists of three distinct systems: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM). Each system has unique characteristics and functions in the processing of sensory inputs.
Sensory Memory
- Function: Registers sensory information with accuracy.
- Capacity: Very large.
- Duration: Extremely brief (less than a second).
- Nature: Acts as an exact replica of the stimulus from different senses (e.g., iconic for visual and echoic for auditory).
- Example: Visual after-image or lingering sound after it stops.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
- Function: Holds information that is attended to from sensory memory.
- Capacity: Limited to 7 ± 2 items.
- Duration: Around 30 seconds or less without rehearsal.
- Encoding: Primarily acoustic (sound-based).
- Fragility: More stable than sensory memory but still fragile.
- Rehearsal: Necessary for retention; otherwise, information fades quickly.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- Function: Serves as the permanent storage system.
- Capacity: Vast, potentially limitless.
- Duration: Long-term and potentially lifelong.
- Encoding: Semantic (based on meaning).
- Retrieval Failure: Forgetting is often due to the inability to retrieve information, not its loss.
Control Processes
Control processes manage how information moves between memory systems and is retained.
- Selective Attention: Filters sensory input; only attended information moves to STM.
- Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition (silent or vocal) helps retain information temporarily in STM.
- Chunking: Groups individual items into meaningful units to expand STM capacity (e.g., 194719492004 → 1947, 1949, 2004).
- Elaborative Rehearsal: Involves connecting new information with pre-existing knowledge in LTM and enhances retention through association, imagery, and organisation.
Criticisms and Limitations of the Stage Model
- Encoding Overlap: Earlier distinctions (acoustic in STM, semantic in LTM) were challenged. Later evidence showed that both memory systems can encode information in multiple ways.
- Case Study – KF: Suffered STM impairment due to a brain injury but retained normal LTM, questioning the assumption that information must pass through STM to reach LTM.
- Unified Memory Processes: Some findings suggest that memory processes are similar regardless of retention duration, challenging the necessity of separate memory stores.
Also Read: NCERT Notes Class 11 Political Science Indian Constitution at Work Chapter 6: Judiciary (Free PDF)
Levels of Processing
The Levels of Processing theory was proposed by Craik and Lockhart in 1972. This view shifted the understanding of memory from being a passive storage system to an active mental process. According to this model, the extent to which new information is retained in memory depends on how deeply it is processed at the time of encoding. In simple terms, the manner in which information is perceived, analysed, and understood determines its memorability.
Three Levels of Processing
The three levels of processing are discussed below.
- Structural (Shallowest) Level
- At this level, information is processed based on its physical or structural features.
- For example, when reading the word cat, the learner may only notice the shape of the letters, capitalisation, or colour of the ink used.
- This form of processing involves surface-level attention and results in a fragile memory trace that fades quickly.
- Phonetic (Intermediate) Level
- Here, the focus shifts to sound or phonetic features of the input.
- For instance, the learner may recognise the word cat as a combination of specific phonetic sounds.
- Although this level involves more analysis than the structural level, the resulting memory is still prone to forgetting unless reinforced.
- Semantic (Deepest) Level
- This is the most effective and long-lasting level of processing.
- At this stage, the individual processes information in terms of its meaning and associations.
- For example, the word cat is understood as a living animal with specific characteristics (furry, four-legged, mammal), and it may be connected to a mental image or personal experiences.
- This deep encoding results in strong memory traces that are highly resistant to forgetting.
Educational Implications
- Understanding the levels of processing helps learners to recognise that mere repetition or surface-level attention is not sufficient for long-term memory. Instead:
- One should try to elaborate on the meaning of new concepts while learning.
- Relating the material to existing knowledge, personal experiences, and real-life applications enhances memory retention.
- Avoiding rote memorisation and focusing on semantic understanding supports long-term learning success.
Types of Long-Term Memory
Recent developments in memory research suggest that long-term memory (LTM) is not a single, unified store, but rather a system composed of multiple components that handle different types of information. Long-term memory, too, has been classified into different subtypes to account for the diversity of information it stores.
1. Declarative and Procedural Memory
One of the major classifications within long-term memory is the distinction between declarative memory and procedural memory:
- Declarative Memory
This type of memory includes factual information, such as names, dates, concepts, and events. Examples include knowing that India became independent on August 15, 1947, that a rickshaw has three wheels, or that frogs are amphibians. It is verbal in nature, meaning its contents can be described in words. It allows us to consciously recall and report facts and knowledge. - Procedural Memory
In contrast, procedural memory refers to skills and actions, such as knowing how to ride a bicycle, prepare tea, or play basketball. These memories are non-verbal and often difficult to articulate. While one may be proficient in performing these tasks, it is challenging to describe how they are done in words. Thus, procedural memory operates more automatically and is non-declarative.
2. Episodic and Semantic Memory (Subtypes of Declarative Memory)
Endel Tulving suggested that declarative memory can be broken down into two components: episodic memory and semantic memory.
- Episodic Memory: Episodic memory contains biographical details of personal experiences. These memories are often emotionally charged and time-specific.
For instance, remembering how you felt when you stood first in class or recalling a friend’s anger when a promise was broken are examples of episodic memories. - Semantic Memory: This memory store contains general knowledge, such as concepts, ideas, language meanings, and rules. Examples include knowing the meaning of non-violence, that 2 + 6 = 8, or that the STD code of New Delhi is 011.
Nature and Cause of Forgetting
Forgetting is a common and familiar experience for everyone. Whether it is forgetting a person’s name during a conversation or failing to recall content memorised the previous day, such lapses raise the question: Why do we forget? Is it due to poor encoding, weak storage, or retrieval difficulties? Psychologists have explored various theories to explain the nature and mechanisms of forgetting.
Ebbinghaus’s Contribution
Hermann Ebbinghaus used lists of nonsense syllables to measure memory retention and forgetting over time. He observed that forgetting is most rapid during the first few hours after learning, especially the first hour, and the rate of forgetting slows down afterwards. This led to the understanding that forgetting occurs in a non-linear fashion.
Theories of Forgetting
The theories of forgetting are discussed below.
1. Trace Decay Theory (Disuse Theory)
- This theory assumes that memory traces are physical changes in the brain formed during learning.
- Over time, if these traces are not activated or used, they decay and become unavailable for retrieval.
- However, this theory has been found inadequate. For instance, people who sleep after learning show less forgetting compared to those who remain awake, even though the memory traces are not “used” during sleep. This contradicts the disuse theory’s assumptions.
2. Interference Theory
- This theory suggests that forgetting happens because new or old information interferes with the retrieval of existing memories.
- It assumes that multiple associations remain intact in memory but compete at the time of recall.
Two types of interference:
- Proactive Interference: Earlier learning interferes with the recall of later learning.
Example: Difficulty in learning French because of prior knowledge of English. - Retroactive Interference: Later learning interferes with the recall of earlier learning. Example: Difficulty in recalling English words after memorising their French equivalents.
Interference is a major cause of forgetting when multiple similar sets of information are stored in memory.
3. Retrieval Failure Theory
- Forgetting may occur not because the information is lost, but because retrieval cues are absent or inappropriate at the time of recall.
- This theory, advanced by Tulving, shows that information remains in memory but may be inaccessible.
- For example, if a list of words from different categories is memorised, recall may be poor initially. But when category names (retrieval cues) are provided, recall improves significantly.
- Physical context and associative cues also serve as powerful retrieval aids.
Enhancing Memory
Psychologists have devised several strategies for memory improvement known as mnemonics. These techniques enhance retention and recall by using imagery and organisation. In addition, some general suggestions for memory enhancement are based on a deeper understanding of memory processes.
Mnemonics Using Images
These techniques involve the use of vivid and interacting mental images associated with the material to be remembered.
- The Keyword Method: This is useful for learning foreign language vocabulary. It involves selecting an English word (keyword) that sounds similar to the foreign word and creating an interactive mental image linking the two.
Example: To remember the Spanish word Pato (duck), think of the English word pot and visualise a duck sitting in a pot of water. - The Method of Loci: This involves visualising familiar physical spaces and associating items to be remembered with specific locations in that space.
Example: To remember a shopping list (bread, eggs, tomatoes, soap), you may mentally place these items along your route from the kitchen to the bathroom and recall them by mentally walking through that route.
Mnemonics Using Organisation
These strategies impose structure on information, making it easier to retrieve.
- Chunking: This combines smaller units of information into larger, meaningful units (chunks), enhancing short-term memory capacity. Example: Remembering the number 194719492004 as 1947, 1949, and 2004.
- Minimise Interference: Since learning similar materials one after another increases interference, organise study sessions with unrelated subjects or take breaks to reduce overlapping information.
- First Letter Technique: Use the first letters of words to form acronyms or memorable phrases.
Example: VIBGYOR for the colours of the rainbow.
Additional Strategies for Improving Memory
A broader approach to memory enhancement involves applying knowledge of memory processes.
- Engage in Deep Level Processing: Focus on the meaning of the information. Ask questions, make connections to what you already know, and integrate new material into your knowledge base. This leads to better and longer retention.
- Use Retrieval Cues: Identify cues from your study material and associate them with content. These cues act as triggers during recall and enhance the accessibility of stored information.
- Use the PQRST Method (by Thomas and Robinson):
- Preview: Skim through the content for an overview.
- Question: Frame questions based on the content.
- Read: Read thoroughly to find answers.
- Self-Recitation: Recall and summarise what you’ve read.
- Test: Evaluate your understanding.
Important Definition in NCERT Notes Class 11 Psychology Chapter 6: Memory
In this section, you will find the important definitions covered in this chapter.
- Chunking: A process in which several smaller units of information are combined into larger, meaningful units or “chunks” to increase the capacity of short-term memory.
- Control Process: Mechanisms that monitor and regulate the flow of information through different memory stores, such as selective attention, rehearsal, and chunking.
- Echoic Memory: A type of sensory memory that stores auditory information for a very brief period, allowing the perception of sound even after the stimulus has ended.
- Encoding: The first stage of memory, referring to the process by which information is initially recorded and transformed into a usable format for memory storage.
- Episodic Memory: A type of declarative memory that contains autobiographical details of one’s personal life experiences, usually emotional in nature.
- Elaborative Rehearsals: Rehearsal techniques involving the linking of new information to existing knowledge by creating associations, aiding in long-term retention.
- Fugue State: A dissociative condition in which individuals temporarily lose access to autobiographical memory, often leading to unexpected travel and identity confusion.
- Information Processing Approach: A model comparing human memory to computer systems, involving the stages of encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
- Maintenance Rehearsals: Repetition-based rehearsals aimed at keeping information active in short-term memory without making meaningful connections.
- Memory Making: Memory making refers to the process involving encoding, storage, and retrieval, through which information is recorded, retained over time, and brought back into awareness when needed.
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FAQs
Ans. Memory involves three interrelated stages: encoding (recording information), storage (retaining information over time), and retrieval (bringing stored information back into awareness for use).
Ans. According to interference theory, forgetting occurs because newly learned information interferes with the retrieval of earlier memories, or vice versa. This interference may be proactive (past learning affects new learning) or retroactive (new learning affects past recall).
Ans. Mnemonics improve memory by using visual images (like the keyword method or method of loci) and organizing information (through chunking or the first-letter technique) to make encoding and retrieval easier and more effective.
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