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NCERT Class 8 History: The introduction of the chapter “Ruling the Countryside” talks about how the British government controlled rural areas in India during colonial times. It explains how they introduced new systems like the Permanent Settlement and the Ryotwari System to collect taxes from farmers. The chapter also discusses the impact of these policies on the lives of peasants and landlords.
Overall, it aims to help students understand how British rule affected rural life in India.
Table of Contents
Introduction to NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 3 Notes From ¨Ruling the Countryside¨
In the pages ahead, we journey through the compelling story of colonial India’s rural struggles and the fight for justice against exploitation. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the East India Company imposed harsh policies, aiming to maximize profits from India’s rich resources.
They forced Indian peasants to cultivate indigo, subjecting them to debt and suffering.
However, this oppression sparked courageous acts of resistance, notably the Champaran movement led by Mahatma Gandhi. Through peaceful protests, Gandhi and others shed light on the plight of farmers, ultimately leading to significant reforms in India’s agrarian landscape.
The Company Becomes the Diwan
On August 12, 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the East India Company as Bengal’s Diwan. This likely happened in Robert Clive’s tent, with a few Englishmen and Indians present.
A painting by Clive later portrayed this event grandly, showing its significance in British perception.
| 1. The East India Company was appointed as the Diwan of Bengal by the Mughal emperor. 2. The event probably took place in Robert Clive’s tent, witnessed by Englishmen and Indians, but is depicted grandly in a painting commissioned by Clive. 3. The company became the chief financial administrator of the territory under its control as Diwan. 4. It had to focus on administering the land and organising its revenue resources efficiently. 5. The company needed to generate enough revenue to meet its growing expenses. 6. Being a trading company, it had to ensure it could procure the products it needed and sell what it desired. 7. The company learned to exercise caution in its actions, recognising the need to pacify former local rulers and maintain their authority and prestige. 8. Local powers had to be controlled without being eliminated. 9. The chapter will explore how the company colonized the countryside, organised revenue resources, redefined people’s rights, and cultivated desired crops. |
Also Read: What were the Diwani Rights?
Revenue for the Company
Despite becoming the Diwan, the East India Company continued to prioritise its role as a trader, aiming for significant revenue without establishing a regular system for assessment and collection. This approach had profound effects on the Bengal economy.
| 1. Even after becoming the Diwan, the East India Company maintained its identity primarily as a trader rather than an administrator. 2. The Company prioritised maximising revenue and acquiring fine cotton and silk cloth at low prices rather than setting up a systematic revenue collection system. 3. Within five years of gaining the Diwani, the value of goods purchased by the Company in Bengal doubled, indicating its growing economic influence in the region. 4. Previously, the company had imported goods from India by using gold and silver from Britain, but now, revenue collected in Bengal financed the purchase of goods for export. 5. However, this economic strategy had severe consequences for the Bengal economy. 6. Artisans began leaving villages as they were compelled to sell their products to the Company at low prices, leading to a decline in artisanal production. 7. Peasants struggled to pay the dues demanded from them, indicating economic hardship. 8. The decline in artisanal production and agricultural cultivation signaled an impending crisis. 9. In 1770, one of the most devastating famines, the Bengal famine, claimed the lives of approximately ten million people, which accounted for about one-third of the population. |
The need to improve agriculture
Faced with economic uncertainty, the East India Company sought stable revenue. Recognizing the importance of land investment and agricultural growth, they introduced the Permanent Settlement in 1793 after lengthy debates.
This marked a significant shift in revenue administration, shaping the socio-economic landscape of British India.
| 1. Faced with economic uncertainty, the East India Company recognized the need for stable revenue income. 2. Company officials realised the importance of investing in land and enhancing agricultural productivity to secure revenue. 3. After extensive debates spanning two decades, the Company implemented the Permanent Settlement in 1793. 4. Under the Permanent Settlement, rajas and taluqdars were acknowledged as zamindars, responsible for collecting rent from peasants and paying revenue to the Company. 5. The key feature of the settlement was the fixation of revenue amounts, which were to remain unchanged indefinitely. 6. This permanence aimed to ensure a steady flow of revenue into the Company’s coffers and motivate zamindars to invest in land improvement. 7. By stabilizing the revenue demands of the state, the Permanent Settlement aimed to encourage zamindars to increase agricultural production, thereby benefiting from enhanced land productivity. 8. The introduction of the Permanent Settlement marked a significant shift in revenue administration and land tenure systems in British India, shaping the socio-economic landscape of the region for years to come. |
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The problem
The Permanent Settlement aimed to stabilise revenue and promote land improvement but led to challenges. Zamindars struggled to meet fixed revenue demands, losing their rights.
Despite rising prices and cultivation, zamindars neglected land improvement, focusing on rent collection. Villagers, especially cultivators, found the colonial system oppressive, facing high rents, insecure land rights, and reliance on moneylenders, leading to evictions and land loss.
1. The Permanent Settlement created difficulties as zamindars failed to invest in land improvements as expected. 2. Fixed revenue demands imposed on zamindars were often too high, making it challenging for them to meet their obligations. 3. Failure to pay the fixed revenue resulted in zamindars losing their zamindari rights, leading to the auctioning of numerous zamindaris by the Company. 4. By the early 19th century, market prices increased, and cultivation expanded, benefiting zamindars financially. 5. However, the company could not increase revenue demands permanently fixed under the settlement, leading to no gain for the company despite increased income for zamindars. 6. Despite financial gains, zamindars remained uninterested in improving the land. 7. Some zamindars had lost their lands earlier, while others preferred earning without the risks associated with land investment. 8. Zamindars focused on leasing out land to tenants and collecting rent rather than investing in land improvement, perpetuating the cycle of land stagnation and lack of development. 9. Villagers, especially cultivators, perceived the colonial system as oppressive. 10. The rent imposed by zamindars was often exorbitant, placing a heavy financial burden on cultivators. 11. Cultivators faced insecurity regarding their land rights under the colonial administration. 12. To meet rent obligations, cultivators frequently resorted to borrowing from moneylenders, exacerbating their financial vulnerability. 13. Failure to repay loans or meet rent payments resulted in severe consequences, including eviction from lands cultivated for generations. 14. The plight of cultivators highlights the structural inequalities and exploitation embedded within the colonial land tenure system. 15. The cyclical nature of indebtedness and land insecurity perpetuated the socio-economic marginalisation of villagers, contributing to their discontent with the colonial administration. |
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A new system is devised
By the early nineteenth century, Company officials recognized the need to revise the revenue system, as the Permanent Settlement proved inadequate for meeting the Company’s increasing financial needs.
In the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency, Holt Mackenzie devised a new system known as the mahalwari settlement, which aimed to preserve the village as a social institution and introduced periodic revisions of revenue demands.
| 1. By the early 19th century, Company officials acknowledged the inadequacy of the Permanent Settlement in meeting the Company’s financial requirements. 2. Holt Mackenzie, an Englishman, proposed a new revenue system in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency, now largely part of Uttar Pradesh. 3. Mackenzie believed in preserving the village as a fundamental social institution in North Indian society. 4. Under the Mahalwari settlement, collectors were tasked with assessing land, measuring fields, and documenting the customs and rights of various social groups within villages. 5. The revenue demand for each village, known as a mahal, was calculated by aggregating the estimated revenue of individual plots of land. 6. Unlike the Permanent Settlement, revenue demands under the Mahalwari system were subject to periodic revisions rather than being permanently fixed. 7. The responsibility of collecting and remitting revenue to the Company was assigned to the village headman, shifting from the traditional zamindar-centric system. 8. The mahalwari settlement represented a departure from the zamindari system and aimed to decentralize revenue collection while preserving the socio-economic fabric of rural communities. |
The Munro system
In the British territories in the South, a shift away from the Permanent Settlement led to the development of the Ryotwari system.
This system, pioneered by Captain Alexander Read and further developed by Thomas Munro, focused on direct settlement with cultivators, known as ryots, who had cultivated the land for generations. It emphasized individual land surveys and portrayed the British as paternal figures responsible for protecting the ryots under their charge.
| 1. The ryotwari system emerged as an alternative to the Permanent Settlement in the British territories in South India. 2. Captain Alexander Read experimented with the ryotwari system in areas acquired by the Company after conflicts with Tipu Sultan. 3. Thomas Munro played a significant role in refining and expanding the ryotwari system across South India. 4. Read and Munro believed that unlike in the North, there were no traditional zamindars in the South, necessitating direct settlement with cultivators, or ryots. 5. The ryotwari system involved careful and separate surveys of individual fields before revenue assessments were made. 6. Munro advocated for the British to adopt a paternalistic role, acting as protectors of the ryots under their jurisdiction. 7. The ryotwari system represented a departure from the zamindari-centric revenue collection model and aimed to establish a more direct relationship between the British administration and the ryots, emphasising fairness and protection of cultivators’ interests. |
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All was not well
After the implementation of the new revenue systems, it became evident within a few years that they were not functioning as expected. Revenue officials aimed to boost land income but ended up setting excessively high revenue demands, leading to various challenges for peasants and rural communities.
| 1. Revenue officials desired to increase land income, so they set high revenue demands. 2. Peasants found it difficult to pay the high revenue demands, leading to financial strain. 3. Many ryots fled the countryside due to the inability to meet the revenue demands. 4. Villages in numerous regions were deserted as a result of peasants leaving. 5. Optimistic officials hoped that the new systems would turn peasants into prosperous farmers. 6. However, the envisioned transformation did not occur as peasants did not become rich or enterprising farmers. |
Crops for Europe
The British recognized the potential of the Indian countryside not only for generating revenue but also for cultivating crops needed in Europe. By the late eighteenth century, the East India Company began efforts to expand the cultivation of crops such as opium and indigo.
Over the following century and a half, the British encouraged or coerced cultivators in different regions of India to grow various crops, including jute, tea, sugarcane, wheat, cotton, and rice.
| 1. The British realised that the Indian countryside could produce crops needed in Europe, in addition to generating revenue. 2. In the late eighteenth century, the East India Company started efforts to expand the cultivation of crops like opium and indigo. 3. Over the next 150 years, the British influenced cultivators in different parts of India to grow crops such as jute in Bengal, tea in Assam, sugarcane in the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh), wheat in Punjab, cotton in Maharashtra and Punjab, and rice in Madras. 4. The British employed various methods to expand crop cultivation according to their needs. 5. The paragraph hints at exploring the story of one crop and one method of production in detail, suggesting an upcoming focus on a specific case study within this broader narrative. |
Does colour have a history?
Figures 5 and 6 depict two images of cotton prints. The image on the left (Fig. 5) showcases a kalamkari print crafted by weavers from Andhra Pradesh, India.
On the right is a floral cotton print designed and produced by William Morris, a renowned poet and artist from nineteenth-century Britain.
Despite their differences, both prints share a common feature: the use of a rich blue colour, known as indigo. Let’s delve into how this colour was produced.
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Why the demand for Indian indigo?
Indigo, flourishing in tropical regions, has dyed cloth globally since the 13th century. European manufacturers faced indigo scarcity and high prices, turning to woad.
Woad’s inferior quality revived indigo demand, prompting European governments to allow imports and spur indigo cultivation in colonies like St. Domingue and Brazil.
By the 18th century, Britain’s industrialization boosted indigo demand, necessitating new supply sources.
1. The indigo plant, thriving in tropical climates, was utilised for dyeing cloth by the thirteenth century. 2. Indian indigo was highly valued by cloth manufacturers in Italy, France, and Britain, but its availability was limited, and prices were exorbitant. 3. European cloth manufacturers turned to woad, a plant native to temperate regions, as an alternative source of blue and violet dyes due to its availability in Europe. 4. However, woad produced a pale and dull dye compared to the rich blue colour obtained from indigo. 5. By the seventeenth century, European governments relaxed bans on indigo imports due to pressure from cloth producers and the superior quality of indigo dye. 6. European powers, including 6. France, Portugal, England, and Spain, established indigo plantations in their colonies to meet the growing demand. 7. By the late eighteenth century, with Britain’s industrialization and expansion of cotton production, the demand for indigo skyrocketed, leading to a collapse in existing supplies from the West Indies and America. 8. The dwindling supply of indigo prompted British cloth dyers to seek new sources of indigo procurement. |
Also Read: Indigo Rebellion: Causes, Outcomes and Rebellion
Britain turns to India
With the increasing demand for indigo in Europe, the East India Company in India sought to expand the cultivation of indigo.
From the late eighteenth century onwards, indigo cultivation in Bengal experienced rapid growth, leading to Bengal indigo dominating the global market. In 1788, only 30 percent of imported indigo in Britain was sourced from India, but by 1810, this proportion surged to 95 percent.
| 1. From the late 1700s, the East India Company in India aimed to increase indigo cultivation to meet the rising demand in Europe. 2. Indigo cultivation in Bengal expanded rapidly during this period, and Bengal indigo emerged as the dominant player in the global market. 3. In 1788, only 30 percent of indigo imported into Britain came from India, but by 1810, this figure rose significantly to 95 percent. 4. As the indigo trade flourished, commercial agents and Company officials began investing in indigo production. 5. Many Company officials left their positions to focus on their indigo businesses, attracted by the promise of high profits. 6. Numerous Scotsmen and Englishmen migrated to India to become indigo planters, lured by the prospects of lucrative returns. 7. Individuals lacking funds for indigo production could secure loans from the Company and emerging banks during this period. |
How was indigo cultivated?
Indigo cultivation involved two main systems: nij and ryoti. Under the nij system, the planter cultivated indigo on lands directly controlled by them. This typically involved purchasing or renting land from zamindars and employing hired labourers for indigo production.
| 1. The two main systems of indigo cultivation were nij and ryoti. 2. In the nij system, the planter directly controlled the land for indigo cultivation. 3. Planters either bought or rented land from zamindars to produce indigo. 4. Indigo production under the nij system involved the direct employment of hired labourers by the planter. 5. This system allowed planters to have greater control over the cultivation process and the labour employed. |
The problem with nij cultivation
Planters faced challenges in expanding the area under nij cultivation, the system where they directly controlled the land for indigo production. Fertile lands suitable for indigo cultivation were already densely populated, making it difficult to acquire large, compact plots for plantations.
Planters attempted to lease land around the indigo factory and evict peasants from the area, leading to conflicts and tension.
Additionally, mobilizing labour was challenging, as large plantations required a vast number of workers, often needed during the rice cultivation season. Moreover, nij cultivation required numerous ploughs and bullocks, posing logistical and supply challenges.
Consequently, planters were hesitant to expand nij cultivation, with less than 25 percent of indigo-producing land under this system, while the majority was under an alternative mode of cultivation called the ryoti system.
| 1. Planters encountered difficulties in expanding nij cultivation due to the scarcity of fertile lands available for indigo cultivation. 2. Acquiring large, compact plots for indigo plantations was challenging, as fertile lands were already densely populated. 3. Attempts to lease land around indigo factories and evict peasants often resulted in conflicts and tensions. 4. Mobilising labor for large plantations was problematic, as workers were typically busy with rice cultivation. 5. Nij cultivation required numerous ploughs and bullocks, posing logistical challenges and dependency on peasant supplies. 6. Planters were reluctant to expand nij cultivation, with less than 25 percent of indigo-producing land under this system. 7. The majority of indigo cultivation was conducted under the ryoti system, an alternative mode of cultivation. |
Indigo on the land of ryots
The ryoti system, active during colonial rule, forced peasants to sign contracts for indigo cultivation. Planters pressured village headmen or directly coerced peasants into agreements.
Peasants received cash advances at low-interest rates but were bound to dedicate at least a quarter of their land to indigo.
This perpetual cycle of loans left peasants financially trapped. Indigo’s low prices and soil depletion further exacerbated their plight, showcasing the harsh realities of colonial exploitation in agriculture.
| 1. Under the ryoti system, planters enforced contracts (satta) on ryots for indigo cultivation. 2. Sometimes, village headmen were pressured to sign contracts on behalf of ryots. 3. Signed contract entitled ryots to cash advances from planters at low interest rates for indigo production. 4. The contract required ryots to allocate at least 25% of their land for indigo cultivation. 5. Planters provided seed and equipment, while ryots prepared soil, sowed seed, and tended crops. 6. After harvest, the crop is delivered to the planter, initiating a new loan cycle for ryots. 7. Despite the initial allure of loans, peasants realized low indigo prices and a perpetual loan cycle. 8. Planters often demanded indigo cultivation on the best soils preferred by peasants for rice. 9. Indigo’s deep roots rapidly depleted the soil, making it unsuitable for rice cultivation post-harvest. |
How was Indigo produced?
Here is a pictorial representation of the production of Indigo.
The “Blue Rebellion” and After
In March 1859, a significant uprising shook Bengal as thousands of ryots revolted against the harsh indigo system. Armed with various weapons, including everyday items like pots and pans, they protested against oppressive planters.
Supported by local zamindars and village leaders, ryots challenged planters’ dominance and demanded fair treatment. This rebellion sparked a series of events, leading to government intervention and ultimately, the historic Champaran movement led by Mahatma Gandhi in 1917.
1. In March 1859, thousands of ryots in Bengal rebelled against the oppressive indigo system, refusing to grow indigo. 2. The rebellion spread as ryots refused to pay rents to planters and attacked indigo factories armed with various weapons, including swords, spears, bows, and arrows. 3. Women also joined the rebellion, using pots, pans, and kitchen implements to fight against the planters. 4. Those working for the planters faced social boycotts, and planters’ agents (gomasthas) collecting rent were beaten up. 5. Ryots vowed not to take advances for indigo cultivation or be intimidated by the planters’ lathi-wielding strongmen (lathiyals). 6. The indigo peasants rebelled because they felt they had the support of local zamindars and village headmen, who mobilised them against the planters. 7. Zamindars, unhappy with the increasing power of planters and forced land leases, urged ryots to resist. 8. Indigo peasants believed the British government would support them, especially after the Revolt of 1857, fearing another popular rebellion. 9. The Lieutenant Governor’s tour in 1859 was interpreted as government sympathy for the ryots’ plight. 10. Magistrate Ashley Eden’s notice in Barasat, stating that ryots were not compelled to accept indigo contracts, was seen as support for the rebellion. 11. Intellectuals from Calcutta rushed to the indigo districts, highlighting Ryot’s misery and the tyranny of planters. 12. Concerned about the rebellion, the government deployed the military to protect planters and established the Indigo Commission to investigate the Indigo system. 13. The Commission held planters responsible, criticising their coercive methods and declaring indigo production unprofitable for ryots. 14. While existing contracts were to be fulfilled, ryots were told they could refuse future indigo production. 15. Following the collapse of indigo production in Bengal after the revolt, planters relocated their operations to Bihar. 16. Despite facing challenges due to the discovery of synthetic dyes in the late nineteenth century, planters managed to expand production. 17. When Mahatma Gandhi returned from South Africa, a peasant from Bihar convinced him to visit Champaran and witness the hardships of indigo cultivators. 18. Mahatma Gandhi’s visit to Champaran in 1917 marked the initiation of the Champaran movement against the indigo planters. |
NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 2 ¨Ruling the Countryside¨
Find the list of important incidents in the history of the establishment of the Company and its power:
| Dates and Events | Brief of Event |
| 1765: East India Company Becomes Diwan | The Mughal emperor appoints the East India Company as the Diwan of Bengal. This means the Company is now in charge of managing finances in Bengal. |
| 1793: Introduction of Permanent Settlement | The Company introduces the Permanent Settlement, fixing revenue demands with zamindars (landowners). This leads to problems as zamindars struggle to pay high fixed amounts. |
| 1822: Mahalwari System Introduced | Holt Mackenzie introduced the Mahalwari system in the North Western Provinces. It involves collecting revenue from villages and periodically revising the demands. |
| 1859: The “Blue Rebellion¨ | Thousands of ryots (peasants) in Bengal rebel against the oppressive indigo cultivation system. They refuse to grow indigo, leading to clashes with planters. |
| 1859: Government Sympathy for Ryots | The British government shows sympathy for the ryots’ plight during the “Blue Rebellion”. A government official, Ashley Eden, issues a notice supporting the ryots’ rights. |
| 1859: Indigo Commission Formed | In response to the rebellion, the British government forms the Indigo Commission to investigate the indigo cultivation system. The commission criticises planters’ coercive methods. |
| 1860: Testimony of Hadji Mulla | Hadji Mulla, an indigo cultivator, refuses to grow indigo, even at a low rate. His testimony reflects the plight of ryots and their determination to resist oppressive practices. |
| Late 19th Century: Collapse of Indigo Production | Indigo production collapses in Bengal due to the rebellion and government intervention. Planters relocate to Bihar, facing challenges from synthetic dyes. |
| 1917: Champaran Movement Begins | Mahatma Gandhi started the Champaran movement in Bihar, continuing the resistance against oppressive practices of planters. This marks a new phase of peasant struggles. |
| 20th Century: Legacy of Resistance | The legacy of resistance against planters continues, with movements like the Champaran movement inspiring further struggles for peasant rights. |
FAQs
Ans: The main features of the Permanent Settlement Class 8 ¨Ruling the Countryside¨ were the permanent settlement’s fixed revenue demands with zamindars in Bengal. These demands made them responsible for collecting rent from peasants. The goal of demands was to ensure a steady flow of revenue for the East India Company.
However, this system led to problems as zamindars struggled to pay high fixed amounts, resulting in auctions of land and further oppression of peasants.
Ans: The chapter explores how the British East India Company colonised rural areas in India and organised revenue resources. It delves into the methods used by the company to exploit agriculture, particularly focusing on the indigo cultivation system and its impact on peasants.
Through various historical events and systems like the Permanent Settlement and Mahalwari system, the chapter examines the Company’s strategies to control and profit from rural resources.
Ans: In the context of the chapter ¨Ruling the Countryside¨ indigo refers to a plant used to produce a blue dye highly sought after by European textile industries. The British East India Company promoted indigo cultivation in Bengal, Bihar, and other regions to meet the growing demand for the dye.
However, the indigo cultivation system was exploitative, with peasants forced to grow indigo under oppressive contracts, leading to resistance and rebellions like the “Blue Rebellion” in 1859.
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